Part III -- The Atlatl Spur and the SHADOWS on the TRAIL

Figure One - 2.2 inch long granite atlatl spur surface found on private land
in Kings County, California by Connie Hudson prior to 1970.
John Bradford Branney Collection.  

The purpose of the atlatl weapon system is to extend the arm of the thrower much like a lever. When thrown properly, the atlatl handle increases the velocity of the spear. 

The finger bone's connected to the hand bone,
The hand bone's connected to the arm bone,
The arm bone's connected to the shoulder bone,
Now shake dem skeleton bones!

Dem bones, dem bones gonna walk around
Dem bones, dem bones, gonna walk around
Dem bones, dem bones, gonna walk around
Now shake dem skeleton bones!

When I think about the process of flinging a spear with an atlatl weapon system, the above tune comes to mind. Many of us remember this song from our childhoods. The various muscles and bones in the human body work together in unison and harmony to make us move. To make a successful atlatl throw, various components in the atlatl weapon system and the human body must work together in unison and harmony. One difference between the atlatl weapon system and the human body is that in the atlatl process one of the components detaches from the rest of the components; the atlatl spear. We better hope that we don't have any detaching components from the human body!  

Figure Two - Atlatl mechanics. 

Most experts believe that prehistoric humans had access to the atlatl weapons system in North America as far back as Clovis Paleoindians. Archaeological evidence for this is circumstantial. However, we do have clear evidence that the atlatl was in play in North America as early as the Middle Archaic. One of the reasons that atlatls might not be found in older Paleoindian sites is because atlatls or throwing handles were mostly made of perishable material. 

Based on archaeological evidence, bow and arrow technology replaced most atlatl technology in North America sometime around A.D. 200 to A.D. 500. There were some atlatl holdouts. When Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés landed in Mexico around A.D. 1519, he found the atlatl weapon system in use within the Aztec population. Cortés also discovered that Spanish chain mail armor wasn't always effective against the penetration of an atlatl-thrown spear. 

Figure Three - Close up of the tail end of a spear which connects to a spur
on the atlatl or throwing handle. 

An atlatl or throwing handle is a piece of wood, bone, or antler two feet or so long. One end of the atlatl was for the thrower's hand while the other end connected to the spear via a peg, hook, or spur (figure three). A cup or indentation at the tail end of the spear fits onto the spur of the atlatl handle. 

Figure Four - Rounded and
polished tip of the hummingbird atlatl spur. 

I will refer to the peg, hook, or spur at the tail end of the atlatl or throwing handle as simply the spur. The spur's purpose is to connect the tail end of the spear to the atlatl. The spur and the tail end of the spear work on the same principle as a ball and socket. A ball and socket is a mechanical device where the ball (in this case the spur) rotates in a socket (in this case the indented end of the spear) and allows rotating motion within the limits of the design. In other words, the cupped or indented end of the spear rotates on the spur until the spear is on its way and disengages from the spur and the throwing handle. The spear remains engaged at the spur during the throw because the atlatl is traveling at a faster velocity than the spear. When the spear's velocity exceeds the velocity of the atlatl, the spear disengages from the spur on its way to the target.  

Written another way, when the thrower starts the spear toss, his or her arm pulls the atlatl forward and upward, and the cupped end of the spear rotates on the tip of the spur until the spear disengages from the atlatl and heads towards the target. 

Users of prehistoric atlatl weapon systems made spurs out of bone, rock, antler, and wood. There is one case in prehistoric Colorado where investigators proposed that a bison tooth was used as an atlatl spur. I already mentioned that we suspect that prehistoric humans made their atlatls out of perishable materials, so spurs might be the only things that survived time in the atlatl weapon system. 

Investigators and collectors have found evidence for the use of the atlatl in prehistoric California in almost every region of the state in the form of atlatl spurs. In fact, California has enough prehistoric atlatl spur examples to classify them into categories. (Ralston and Fitzgerald 2014).

Figures one and four show an example of a prehistoric atlatl spur surface found in Kings County, California by Connie Hudson prior to 1970. Most of the people I have spoken to about this prehistoric artifact believe this atlatl spur represents a bird's head, specifically a hummingbird's head. 

A bird's head would be an ideal symbol for an atlatl. If we think about a spear launched from an atlatl, flying effortlessly through the sky, what better symbol for a flight than a bird or hummingbird? 

Figure Five - A mock up of how I believe this
bird head spur was used within the atlatl weapon system.   

Figure five is a drawing showing how I believe the prehistoric human had the hummingbird spur set up. The maker of this atlatl weapon system gouged out a hole into the back end of the wooden handle and attached the spur there. The butt end of the spear or dart was then placed on the rounded knob of the spear. When the prehistoric human flung the wooden handle forward, the spear led the way until it flew on its own.         

2014    Candice Ralston and Fitzgerald, R. T. Two Atlatl Engaging Spurs from CA-CCO-18/548: A Critical Examination of Atlatl Spur Taxonomy. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 34(1):101-108. 

Check out my books and links on atlatls at the end of this article!  

ATLATL PART ONE and SHADOW ON THE TRAIL

ATLATL PART TWO and SHADOWS ON THE TRAIL     

CLICK to ORDER JOHN BRADFORD BRANNEY BOOKS

       

CROW and the CAVE - Book Review by Prehistoric AMERICAN

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CLICK to ORDER CROW and the CAVE

Who Dun It? Clovis, Folsom, or Something Else? Part IV

Figure One - 3.5-inch long semi-translucent biface, a 
surface find from private land in south-central Wyoming.
John Bradford Branney Collection. 

There is a fair chance that the beautiful biface in figure one is an ultrathin knife form from a Paleoindian prehistoric culture from 11,000 to 13,000 plus years ago. Why do I say fair chance and I am not more definitive? Because the late Jim Roth surface found this artifact on private land in Carbon County, Wyoming, and it was a surface find discovered out of archaeological context. Since surface artifact hunters must be 'part detective' when it comes to identifying some artifacts, I will provide some evidence for a prehistoric culture I think it came from. But first, I want to explore a passage from my historical fiction book on Paleoindians titled GHOSTS of the HEART.

For those of you who have not read my popular prehistoric adventure series about the Folsom People, the SHADOWS on the TRAIL Pentalogy, my main character Chayton and other hunters in his tribe carried ultrathin knife forms to filet meat from the prey animals they butchered. In this scene, Chayton and the hunters set up a trap and harvested a small herd of bison. I imagine hunting bison back 12,600 years ago when the book took place was hard work. Butchering bison was probably even harder work.  

When it was all over, the tribe had killed twenty-two tatanka – bison. The meat from the herd would help the tribe through wani yetu – winter. One of the hunters ran to the camp to tell the people of the tribe. Before long, the entire tribe had returned to help butcher and carry the meat back to the camp. First, everyone in the tribe helped lay all of the carcasses on their bellies with legs sprawled. Then a team of two or three butchers worked on each carcass; while one person held and positioned the carcass, the other person chopped, sawed and cut. The team of butchers then cut the hide lengthwise down the back.  

Figure Two - CLICK to ORDER

They then pulled the hide to the ground on both sides of the carcass, creating a mat that would protect the butchered meat from the ground. The team of butchers extracted the tender cuts of meat under the skin of the back first, followed by the forelegs, shoulders, hump meat, rib cage, and body cavity. They would not waste anything. The team of butchers opened up each body cavity and removed the heart, liver, and gall bladder.  

With hammer stones, choppers, and stone knives, the butchers then harvested the hindquarters, hind legs, neck, and skull. As the team of butchers systematically stripped the meat from the carcasses, others carried the meat back to the camp where they cut it into strips and hung it from sagebrush and tree branches to dry. The Folsom People would make pemmican from the meat that was too tough to eat. They then extracted two more delicacies from the skull, the tongue, and the brain.  

Now that I gave you a taste for GHOSTS of the HEART, let's go back to the knife form in question. I believe that this knife form is definitely Paleoindian, either a Folsom ultrathin knife form or a Clovis ovate biface. 

Why? Let me outline my logic.

1. The dimensions of this knife form are: 88 mm long, 42 mm wide, and 5 mm thick, giving it a width to thickness ratio of 8.4, well within the arbitrary width to thickness ratio for ultrathin knife forms of 7 or greater. 

2. The raw material is wild: a beautiful semi-translucent, banded petrified wood.

 

Figure Three - 3.5-inch long biface surface found in Wyoming.
One edge along the biface was polished smooth, indicating to me
that the user handheld it. Note the diving flakes near the middle
of the biface. John Bradford Branney Collection.   

      Figure Four - Powars II red ocher
archaeological site in east  
central Wyoming. 

3. In several flake terminations, there appear to be oxidized iron deposits or staining, much like you would find when red ochre was applied. Ochre is a natural mineral containing ferric oxide. It is typically associated with clay and varies in color from light yellow to brown to red. Red ochre has been found in many different archaeological contexts including Paleoindian occupation floors. Paleoindians sometimes painted their tools and projectile points with red ochre. Red ochre has also been associated with Paleoindian burials. Red ochre was widely used at Paleoindian levels at Powars II, Hanson, Hell Gap, Sheaman, and the Medicine Lodge Creek archaeological sites in Wyoming. Investigators discovered a grinding slab used for pulverizing red ochre nodules and rocks into powder at the Folsom level at the Agate Basin site in eastern Wyoming.

4. We know prehistoric people used different types of ochre for paint pigment, and we assume they used it for both functional and ritualistic reasons. Upper Paleolithic graves in Europe and at least one Clovis grave in the United States contained ochre. Ochre appeared to have an application in the Magdalenian in Europe as an ingredient in an adhesive that was used to haft knife forms and projectile points to handles and foreshafts. Perhaps, North American Paleoindians used red ochre as an adhesive for fastening projectile points and knives to spears and handles. We also know that red ochre preserves wood. That would explain the occurrence of red ochre in the hafting area of many Clovis projectile points. Some investigators also believe that Paleoindian flintknappers in North America might have used red ochre as an abrasive to polish and dull the lateral edges in the hafting areas of projectile points. Dulling the edges was a common practice in Paleoindian and Early Archaic times. We assume this dulling was done to prevent the edge of the stone artifact from cutting the sinew lashings. Red ochre is also commonly found with Clovis tool caches but we cannot be sure of the purpose. 

5. It is not coincidently that the predominant colors used in rock art and cave art in the Old World and in some cases, New World, were black (from charcoal, soot, or manganese oxide), yellow ochre (limonite), red ochre (hematite or burned limonite) and white (kaolin clay, burnt shells, powdered gypsum, or powdered calcium carbonate). 

Figure Five - Clovis and Paleoindian biface thinning sequence. 
From The Agate Basin Site by George C Frison and Dennis J. Stanford.    

6. I love Paleoindian flintknapping, especially the biface thinning through percussion technology. The flaking on the artifact in figures one, three, and six screams out as Paleoindian origin. Paleoindians attacked a piece of flint with carefree, but skilled abandon. The Paleoindian flintknapper's attitude must have been "why thin a biface with ten swings of a hammer when five swings accomplish the same result." Paleoindians thinned bifaces with wide, thin flakes that crossed the face of the biface, sometimes overshooting the other edge (see figure five). The end result was wide, thin, and long flakes that were exceptionally flat which thinned the biface without losing overall length or width. On the artifact in figures one, three, and six; several of these wide-thin-flat flakes terminate midway across the face of the biface, creating step or hinge terminations in the middle of the artifact. These diving flakes created a biconcave cross-section for this knife form. Some of these diving flakes were met by diving flakes from the other side, creating an even more concave profile in the middle of the artifact.

Figure Six - Reverse side of a 3.5-inch long biface. Note diving flakes near 

the middle of the biface. John Bradford Branney Collection.    

Few knife form or biface types are culturally diagnostic. It usually takes finding them in situ under controlled archaeological and geological conditions to determine age or cultural affiliation. This knife form was a surface find but I am hypothesizing that it either came from the Folsom or Clovis Paleoindian culture based on its production technology, knapping characteristics, and the presence of oxidized red ochre. 

But, just because that is what I think does not make it necessarily so. 

Disclaimer: I have NOT had this knife form 'officially' tested for the presence of red ochre, although several knowledgeable collectors and archaeologists have looked it over and concluded the same thing. My assumption that it is red ochre is from those opinions, my experience and research, and observation of the deposits under high magnification. 

So, what is your opinion? Is it a Clovis Ovate Biface
or a Folsom Ultrathin Knife or maybe something else altogether?   

The historical fiction novels written by John Bradford Branney are known for their impeccable research and biting realism. In his soon-to-be-released blockbuster Beyond the Campfire, Branney catapults his readers back into Prehistoric America where they reunite with some familiar faces from Branney’s best-selling prehistoric adventure series the Shadows on the Trail Pentalogy.

John Bradford Branney holds a geology degree from the University of Wyoming and MBA from the University of Colorado. John lives in the Colorado mountains with his wife, Theresa. Beyond the Campfire is the eleventh published book by Branney.

Part II- Atlatl Weapons and the SHADOWS on the TRAIL

Figure One - Photo of a painting called Pre-Columbian Indian with Atlatl
by well-known western artist James Bama. 

In Part One of my series on the Atlatl and the SHADOWS on the TRAIL PENTALOGY, I discussed the overall concept of the atlatl weapon system and the advantages the thrower had by lengthening his or her throwing arm with an atlatl. With everything else being equal, lengthening the throwing arm by using a spear thrower or an atlatl increases the velocity and distance of an airborne spear or dart. Higher velocity translates to better penetration which translates into more tissue and organ damage in the hunted prey. Of course, there is always too much of a good thing, and increasing the length of an atlatl past its optimal limit will significantly decrease the spear's accuracy.  

Before we go any further with atlatls, I want to take you on a little elk hunt from my first book, SHADOWS on the TRAIL. Are you ready for that? In this particular scene, my main character Chayton is hunting with an atlatl. I assume that the atlatl weapon system was available to North American Paleoindians some 12,500 years ago. Circumstantial archaeological evidence indicates it was. Now, back to the hunt.

A young elk bull and cow appeared out of the trees, trotting out onto the open field. Chayton was at full alert. The elk had yet to spot Chayton and they were heading straight towards the hunter. The bull elk was leading the way with the cow elk following behind. They held their heads high as they sniffed the breeze for predators. Chayton was downwind and he realized this was what Hexaka planned the entire time.   

Chayton’s cocked his left throwing arm. He was ready to heave the spear. He needed the beasts closer. The bull was walking straight toward the hunter, but Chayton did not like the chances of this throw. The bull had no vital organs exposed to Chayton’s line of fire. Chayton could throw the spear perfectly and still not kill the beast. The last thing Chayton wanted to do was track down a wounded elk during the heat of the day across country inhabited by wolves and mountain lions. He needed the elk to turn and expose its side to his spear. Chayton thought about moving his spot, but one sound and both elk would be off and running in the opposite direction. If the elk got any closer, they were bound to pick up Chayton’s scent.

Chayton searched the ground with his off hand and found a rock. While his left arm kept the spear ready, he hurled the rock off to his right. The rock bounced off a tree and rolled across the ground. The bull elk turned to investigate the sound and in doing so, exposed his side to the hunter. Chayton did not wait for any grass to grow; he hurled the spear. The razor-sharp fluted spear tip popped loudly when it penetrated the bull’s rib cage. The bull ran off as if nothing happened. Chayton watched the bull elk plowing through the trees and vanishing from sight. 

What happened with the elk? You will have to read the SHADOWS on the TRAIL to find out. Don't worry, the journey I take you on will be worth your time.

CLICK for INFORMATION on SHADOWS

 

In part two, I am exploring the flight of the atlatl-launched spear or dart, but first a little housekeeping. In the following paragraphs, I will refer to the weapon that leaves the atlatl as a spear, even though some literature might refer to the weapon as a dart. In part two, atlatl spear and dart are synonymous.  

The mechanics of an atlatl system depends on the flexibility of the spear. When the atlatl pushes the spear forward (figure three), energy is transferred from the atlatl and stored in the spear much like a spring. When the spear 'lifts off' from the atlatl, the stored energy is released and converted to additional velocity as it flies toward the target.

  

Figure Three - The ingenuity of the mechanics behind the atlatl
is the stored energy within a flexed spear. 

Two concepts from physics help us to better understand the flight of an atlatl-launched spear. The first concept is momentum. Most of us have used the term momentum and generally understand who it works. Perhaps, we were talking about the momentum of our favorite sports team or the momentum of a political candidate. In physics, momentum is defined as the tendency of an object to continue moving in its original direction. Momentum is an object’s resistance to stopping. An example of momentum is a rolling freight train that suddenly needs to stop. A loaded freight train's momentum takes the train long past where it should have stopped.   

How is momentum calculated? Momentum (P) is equal to the object's mass (M) multiplied times (x) the object's velocity (V). As an example, if a lighter atlatl spear is flying through the air at the same velocity as a heavier atlatl spear, the lighter spear has less momentum than the heavier spear. Put in a different way, less resistance is needed to stop a lighter spear if traveling at the same velocity as the heavier spear. Change either the mass or the velocity of an object and its momentum changes.

Momentum = P = M x V

As the equation above indicates, mass and velocity carry the same weight in calculating momentum. A slower-moving heavy spear can have the same momentum as a faster-moving light spear.   

Figure Four - Middle Archaic atlatl dart points from the high plains
showing size ranges. Longest point is 1.9 inches long.
John Bradford Branney Collection 

The second physics concept is kinetic energy which is defined as the energy of an object in motion. The more kinetic energy a spear has, the more available energy it has to penetrate the prey's hide, break any bones in its path, and push the projectile point and spear shaft further into the prey's body cavity.    

Just like momentum, kinetic energy is defined using an object’s mass and velocity, but mass and velocity affect kinetic energy differently than momentum. While mass and velocity carry equal weight in momentum, velocity is more important than mass with kinetic energy. 

Kinetic energy (KE) is equal to one-half times mass (½ M) multiplied times (x) velocity squared (V²). 

Kinetic Energy = KE = ½M x V²

To calculate kinetic energy, we divide the mass in half and square the velocity!  

I mentioned earlier that a slower-moving heavy spear can have the same momentum as a faster-moving light spear. However, the faster-moving light spear has more kinetic energy than the slower-moving heavy spear. Velocity has a much higher influence on kinetic energy than it does momentum. If the heavy spear and light spear are flying at the same velocity, the heavy spear has more kinetic energy because it has more mass.  Although mass is important when it comes to spears, velocity has a bigger influence on distance, kinetic energy, and accuracy. The atlatl or the spear thrower portion of the weapon system has little influence on the size or mass of the spear, but it does have huge influence on increasing a given spear's velocity.

Figure Five - Paleoindians carrying atlatls and spears. 

Is a heavy or a light spear more lethal when it comes to hunting with an atlatl? Whittaker, Pettigrew, and Grohsmeyer (2017) explored the relationship between heavy and light spears and suggested that Paleoindians who hunted large mammals such as mammoths or bison required heavier spears and projectile points. The spear had to be able to cut a hole through the animal's hide with enough momentum to reach its vital organs and/or cause lethal hemorrhaging. Close your eyes and imagine hunting a gigantic mammoth with a light spear and small projectile point. I would say that would be like “hunting a bear with a willow switch”. Although it is not prudent to hunt mammoths with undersized equipment, that same equipment might be suitable for hunting wary antelope on the plains where adding velocity improves both distance and accuracy.  

It is logical to assume that Paleoindians customized their atlatl weapon systems for the type of prey they were hunting. If the targeted prey were mammoth or bison, the spears and projectile points might be heavier. If the targeted prey were deer, antelope, or mountain sheep, the spears and projectile points might be lighter and take advantage of increased velocity and distance. This is not any different than what modern game hunters do. You don’t see experienced hunters using rifles and cartridges designed for elephants on antelope or vice versa. That just doesn't make sense, and Paleoindians had to make sense if they wanted to survive.

Happy Hunting! 

2017    Whittaker, John C., Devin B. Pettigrew, and Ryan J. Grohsmeyer

Atlatl Dart Velocity: Accurate Measurements and Implications for Paleoindian and Archaic Archaeology in Paleoamerica, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 161-181. College Station.     

CLICK here if you MISSED Part ONE of my ATLATL Article   


Hey, check out my books, won't ya?